Space Station and Space applications
The Space Shunle is scheduled to carry many of the component pants of the international space sta tion into orbit and to provide an initial base for as sembly operations. At 290 feet (88.4 meters) long and 381 feet (110.1 rneters) across, the space sta tion will be the largest assembly ever erected in space. It also represents the largest cooperative sci entific program in space history, and will include con tributions from NASA, Japan. Canada, the member nations of the European Space Agency and Russia.
People operating inside the microgravity of a space station can produce products difficult or im possible to make on Earth, such as povver genera tion from sunlight In addition, such an orbiting plat form can provide astronomers and other scientists with an excellent vantage point above the distorting atmosphere from which they can study the composi tion and structures of our universe in ways not p05 sible on the ground other applications are the economical manufac turing in zero gravity of presently very expensive medical drugs, or glass for lenses, or electronic crys tals of unrivaled purity and size, as well as various alloys, composites and metallic materials impossible to produce on Earth. Drugs. rnetals, glass, and pro tein and electronic crystals will first be manufactured in pilot programs on board various Shuttle missions. proving the concept before larger scale operations begin.
The Space Shuttle is overall the most capable vehicle built since the space program began, and the major means of providing humanity with the lim itless benefits available from space exploration and utilization.
Why explore space?
Space research and exploration generate a wide range of direct and indirect benefits.Knowledge-Space science missions produce basic knowledge about our environment, our solar system and the universe, which then gives usa deeper under- -standing of the history and the state of our world.With this new information, we can make better decisions about how to sustain and improve life on Earth in the future.Applications-Orbiting spacecraft transmit information like phone calls and television signals around the globe with extreme speed and precision. Other satellites monitor the weather and the health of the atmosphere, the dynamics of the oceans and the vitality of the land.Satellite-based navigation systems aboard air- planes and boats enable people to determine their geo graphic position and heading with greater accuracy than ever before. This improves safety and makes travel more efficient.The unique conditions of space-weightlessness, temperature extremes, vacuum, radiation- create the opportunity for laboratory experiments and industrial processes that are impossible or impractical to per form on Earth. Technology -Technology created to prepare Systems and people to operate in the harsh conditions of space contributes to advances in composite materials, elec tronics, robotics, medicine, energy production, manu facturing, transportation and many other areas of hu man activity.In many cases, these advances would occur much more slowly or not at all without the challenge of space exploration.Economics-The space program is a major component of the U.S. aerospace industry, which supports nearly one million jobs. The industry posted a record posi tive trade balance of $31.4 billion in 1992.
One recent study found that 350,000 new high tech jobs were created by 248 different types of NASA technology transferred to the private sector between 1979 and 1986.
If the U.S. defense budget declines as expected dur mg the 19905, the civil space program will become an even more important part of the aerospace industry.
Further in the future, space-based natural re sources like metals, minerals and energy likely will become a key component of life in the 21st century-
Inspiration-The urge to explore the unknown is part of human nature and has led to many of the most pro found changes in our standard of living. It enriches our spirits and reminds us of the great potential for achievement within us all. The drive to develop the next frontier also has been a fundamental part of the heritage of the people of the United States.
In addition, the space program has an unmatched ability to capture and stimulate young minds, encour aging children to learn mathematics, science and tech nology skills in an exciting and practical way. Educa tors are engaged in the nation's aerospace program through unique training opportunities and teaching resources designed to enhance their knowledge and experience. NASA also is a major supporter of univer sity students and faculty across the country, through research agreements and educational fellowships that totaled more than $625 million in 1992. This helps lay the foundation for a vibrant, technically literate soci ety in the decades to come.
The physical challenges and costs of space ex ploration also serve as a natural catalyst for peaceful international cooperation, improving the quality of life for people in many different nations.
How much does tt'e space program cost me as an individual?
Congress approved a budget of $14.3 billion for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1993. This funding level has remained relatively flat for three years, and it is predicted to grow less swiftly than the rate of inflation in the near future.
This equates to an annual investment in NASA of $57.50 by each person in the United States, or about
16 cents per day.
Why not reduce the amount of money spent on space exploration and increase spending on social programs?
NASA's funding represents about one penny out of every dollar in the U.S. federal budget (down from a peak of four cents per dollar at the height of the Apollo program in the late 1960s).
Diverting this money into social programs would provide a very minimal increase for those immediate funding needs, while eliminating resources for one of the few federal agencies devoted to the future. Such a move forfeits any possible new solutions to our social and economic problems in favor of the limited means that we already know.
How can educators obtain NASA materials for use in their classroom?
NASA's Education Division disseminates educational products and materials for teachers at all academic levels through the NASA field centers, our Teacher Resource Center Network, NASA Select television and NASA Spacelink, a computer bulletin board service.
For further details, write to the NASA Education Division, Code FEO, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 20546.
What is NASA'S role in aeronautics?
Back to its roots as the National Advisory Committee
for Aeronautics (founded in 1915), NASA has been a
world leader in aviation-related research and develop
ment.
Given the growing economic challenges facing the
U.S. aircraft industry, NASA is reinvigorating its aero
A nautics research with increased funding and greater
management attention.
NASA's top priority is joint research with industry
leading to the development of an economical and en
vironmentally safe supersonic passenger jet known as
the High Speed Civil Transport. Able to fly from Los
Angeles to Japan in about four hours, this plane rep
resents a potential market of 500 to 1,000 planes,
worth an estimated $200 billion and 140,000 jobs.
NASA's second priority in aeronautics isa series dtechooiogical improvements to our current fleet of Subsonic transport planes to make them safer, qui eter; more fuel efficient and more environmentally friendly. Newareas of emphasis will include integrated air-traffic control and communications systems.
The agency's third priority is refurbishing our national aeronautical research facilities, like wind tun nels and propulsion test beds, to ensure that their equipment is world-class and their productivity is sec ond-to-none.
NASA's fourth priority is a continued partnership with the U.S. Department of Defense in pursuing the most challenging aspects of hypersonic flight tech nology, such as work related to the National Aero Space Plane.
What is the National Aero-Space Plane?
The National Aero-Space Plane (or NASP) is a joint project between NASA and the Defense Department to develop technology in scramjet propulsion, aero dynamics and advanced composite materials that would allow us to build an experimental vehicle known as the X-30.
The X-30 would take off and land horizontally on a runway, like an airplane, but be able to fly fast enough 25t' the speed of sound) to go directly into low Earth orbit.
Many technical obstacles remain, but an opera tional vehicle derived from the X-3O promises signifi cant reductions in the cost and complexity of access to space through its airline-type operations.
How much does a Space Shuttle cost?
Space Shuttle Endeavour, the orbiter built to replace the Space Shuttle Challenger, cost approximately $1.7 billion.
Why hasn't the United States developed a way to rescue astronauts who are in trouble Dn space mis sions?
NASA has a range of systems that could come to the aid of endangered astronauts.
Following the Shuffle Challenger accident, NASA developed an emergency escape hatch for the Shuttle fleet that enables crew members to eject themselves from the side of a Shuttle on a parachute during cer tain types of emergencies in the later parts of a launch.
Aboard the Space Station, early permanent crews will have access to a modified Russian Soyuz space craft as an emergency rescue vehicle should they need to leave the outpost when a Space Shuttle is not docked to it. A more advanced rescue vehicle may be devel oped in the future.
Why send people into space when robotic space craft usually cost less?
Humans and robots each have their own special roles in space.
Robots are best qualified for missions that require
precise, repetitive measurements or maneuvers, and
for missions that last for a long time, such as trips to
the outer planets.
Since the Challenger accident, NASA has toilowed
a policy that says at robotic spacecraft will be launched
on expendable rocket boosters unless they require
human intervention or some special capability of the
Shuttle system. Satellites such as the Cosmic Back
ground Explorer (COBE) and the Roentgen Satellite
(ROSAT) that were originally intended for the Shuttle
have since been launched successfully on expendable
rockets.
Humans remain better equipped than robots for
tasks that involve analytical decision-making or con
stant adjustments, like monitoring microgravity experi
ments in protein crystal growth or looking for evidence
of fossil life on Mars. By launching humans into space,
we also gain unique insights into the workings of the
A human body, many of which are masked or changed
by gravity when a person is on the Earth.
The Space Shuffle system also enables astronauts
to carry out special duties that would be difficult or
impossible for a robot to perform, such as the repair
and retrieval of a damaged or malfunctioning satellite.
How much does a spacecraft weigh when it is in space?
An object in space is said to be in a state of weight lessness, although its original mass remains the same. (Mass can be understood as a measurement of iner tia, the resistance of an object to be set in motion or stopped from motion.)
Objects in space near the Earth, the Moon or other large bodies retain a small amount of weight due to the tiny amount of planetary gravity that continues to pull on them.
However, orbital motion reduces this condition to an extremely low level of gravity known as microgravity (about one-millionth of the normal grav ity we feel at the Earth's surface). When an object is in orbit about a large body like a planet, it is travelling just fast enough to fall in a continuous curved path around the planet, without flying off or falling down to the planet's surface. This free fall results in microgravity.
Thus, when a Shuttle crew wants to land, they fire the Shuffle's engines directly into its forward path, slowing the Shuttle enough that it drops out of orbit.
Close to the Earth, the wispy upper atmosphere drags on some satellites enough through friction that the satellites must be boosted periodically into higher orbits. Most spacecraft that are sent on long voyages to other planets are actually in a looping orbit around the Sun during their long outward trips.
How fast does a Space Shuttle travel?
What is its altitude? How much fuel does it use?
Like any other object in low Earth orbit, a Shuffle must reach speeds of about 17,500 mph (28,000 kilome ters per hour) to remain in orbit.
The exact speed depends on the Shuttle's orbital altitude, which normally ranges from 190 miles to 330 miles (304 kilometers to 528 kilometers) above sea level, depending on its mission.
(Many communications satellites use a booster rocket to go to an orbit 22,300 miles [35,680 kilome ters] high. Known as geosynchronous orbit, this height is special because a satellite orbiting here circles the Earth at the same rate as a point on the equator, allowing it to hover over a ground station located at that point.)
Each of the two Solid Rocket Boosters on the Shuttle carries more than one million pounds of solid Ipropellant. The Shuffle's large External Tank is loaded with more than 500,000 gallons of supercold liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, which are mixed and burned togetherto form the fuel for the Shuttle's three main rocket engines.
What is the temperature in space?
Temperatures in space depend on whether the ther mometer is in sunlight or darkness.
Near the Earth and the Moon, objects in direct sunlight can heat up to temperatures of about 250 degrees F (121 degrees C). In the shade, objects can cool down to around -250 degrees F (-156 degrees
This extreme range i~ the reason why the thermal designs of spacecraft and space suits are so impor tant.
How are modern space suits different than the first ones?
Early portable life-support systems were cumbersome and often very tiring to use. In the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo programs, each space suit was tailored to fit a specific astronaut.
Space Shuttle space suits come in two major pieces, each of which comes in several different sizes. They have more flexible joints than early space suits, and better environmental controls. They also can be repaired and reused many times. Space suits on the Space Station, at least initially, will be improved ver sions of these suits.
What is a launch window?
A launch window is the precise period of time, rang ing from minutes to hours, within which a launch must occur for a rocket or Space Shuttle to place its pay load in the proper orbit.
Most of the time, this window is determined by etherthe passing ofan orbiting spacecraft with which the Shuttle must rendezvous or by the time of day that a satellite payload should pass over a certain region of the Earth.
For example, during a June 1993 mission, the Shuffle Endeavour had to lift-ott and rendezvous with the European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) satellite in order to return it and its microgravity science ex periments to Earth after nearly a year in orbit. Endeavour had a 71-minute launch window to reach its rendezvous point with EURECA.
Other times, the Shuttle or an expendable rocket must be launched within a certain period so that it can release its payload at the right time to reach its final path. For example, the Delta rocket that launched the U.S.-Japanese Geotail spacecraft into a looping orbit around the Earth and the Moon in July1992 to study the Earth's magnetosphere had a two-minute launch window.
What are the names of the Space Shuttle orbiters?
Their names, in the order they were built, are Enter prise, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavoun
The Enterprise was flown onlv within Earth's at mosphere, during Shuttle approach and landing tests conducted in 1977
Columbia flew the first five Shuttle missions, be ginning in April1981, and it now has been modified to fly extended duration missions as long as 16 days.
Challenger was built as a vibration test vehicle and then upgraded to become the second operational Shuttle. The Challenger and her seven-member crew were lost in a launch accident on January 28,1986.
Discovery made her first flight in August 1984, and Atlantis followed in October1985.
Endeavour, built to replace Challenger, made its debut in May 1992 with a dramatic mission that fea tured the rescue of a stranded Intelsat 6 commercial communications satellite.
How are NASA program names such as Mercury, Gemini and Apollo chosen?
NASA officials consider a variety of reasons when choosing a name for a program
Sometimes, the names are descriptive, like Skylab or the Space Shuttle. Some names honor famous sci entists and explorers, like Galileo, Hubble and Magellan.
Others are chosen from classical mythology that relates to some feature of the mission. Mercury was the messenger of the gods. Gemini, Latin for twins, was appropriate because each Gemini mission carried two astronauts. Apollo was the god of the Sun, who spread knowledge.
How does NASA cooperate with other countries in carrying out space projects?
International cooperation has been a fundamental part of NASA since the agency was formed in 1958. Over the years, NASA has signed more than 1,200 agree ments with more than 135 countries and international organizations.
This cooperation ranges from shared scientific data and joint research to construction of space hard ware and orbital rendezvous, like the Apollo-Soyuz docking in 1975 and the visit of a Space Shuttle to the Russian Mir space station scheduled for 1995.
The international Space Station program is one of the largest high-tech cooperative ventures ever, with formal participation by the United States, Japan, Canada and 10 nations from the European Space Agency.
Joint programs allow each country to contribute its individual expertise. They also foster an increased understanding of different cultures, leading to more peaceful and productive relations between the people of the countries as a whole.
In many cases, the pooled resources and shared funding inherent in most international cooperation enable missions that would be too difficult or too costly for nations to accomplish individually.
Is there a tenth planet?
We do not know for sur~some astronomers believe that one may exist, while others do not.
Recent observations suggest that there are some large asteroids or fragments of planetary bodies beyond the orbits of Neptune and Pluto, but no planet has been found.
Do UFOs really exist?
NASA has no factual knowledge about alien UFOs nor any evidence that life has existed on other planets.
We do conduct a search for extraterrestrial intel ligence through the High Resolution Microwave Sur vey (HRMS) program, which uses powerful radio re ceivers and sophisticated computerized recognition programs to search the skies for signals from advanced civilizations.
Meanwhile, a program called Toward Other Plan etary Systems (TOPS} will look for conclusive evidence of the existence of planets in other star systems. The Hubble Space Telescope also makes some observa tions in this area.
Can the Space Shuttle be used to dispose of hazard ous wastes?
No. The Shuffle is a specialized vehicle devoted to space research, development and applications, and it would be impractical to use it as a trash truck.
What happens to used spacecraft? Where is the Enterprise, the first Space Shuttle?
In early human space flight programs such as Mer cury, Gemini and Apollo, the spacecraft underwent detailed post-mission analysis that often yielded im portant new information on the rigors of travelling in space.
Most of these vehicles are displayed for the pub lic at NASA centers and science museums across the country. For example! the Apollo 11 command mod ule is displayed at the Smithsonian Institution's Na tional Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C.
The Enterprise, which was not designed to fly in space, made a series of appearances at air shows in the United States, Europe and Canada before being turned over to the Air and Space Museum. It is now in storage awaiting the construction of a museum annex that would house it and numerous other large historic aircraft.
Can I obtain space hardware from NASA?
No. Moon rocks, samples of space food, telescopes, old space suits, discarded Shuttle tiles and other used hardware are not available to the public. Blueprints, flight plans, briefing papers and other materials are printed in limited quantities for distribu tion only to working personnel who require them. Most items of value that NASA no longer needs are offered first to the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, orto other science museums. These objects are sometimes available for loan to qualified institu tions. However, anyone who writes to the public affairs office at NASA Headquarters or a NASA field center can obtain a variety of informational pamphlets and educational materials.
How do astronauts loto the bathroom and take care of other personal hygiene?
Each Space Shuttle has a toilet that can be used by both men and women. Designed to be as much as possible like those on Earth, the units use flowing air instead of water to move waste through the system.
Solid wastes are compressed and stored on- board, and then removed after landing. Waste water is vented to space, although future systems may re cycle it. The air is filtered to remove odor and bacteria and then returned to the cabin.
Astronauts brush their teeth just like they do on Earth. However, there is no shower on the Shuttle, so astronauts must make do with sponge baths until they return home.
Can I apply to take a ride on the Space Shuttle?
Unfortunately, NASA has no immediate plans to send children, teenagers or any other general citizens into space. Forthe nearfutureat least, space flight remains too risky and too expensive for anyone but highly trained astronauts to take part in. However, one of our goals is to help industry develop new rocket systems that would make space flight much more simple and routine, so that many more people could go into orbit in the future.
Can NASA engineers evaluate my invention, draw ing or plans?
No. We receive hundreds of such requests each month, and NASA does not have enough engineers to handle this extra work in addition to their regular duties. Since it would be unfairto evaluate some proposals and not others, we do not evaluate any.
However, there is a brochure available on how to submit a formal unsolicited proposal to NASA for fund mg or joint research and development. The NASA Of fice oftSmall and Disadvantaged Business Utilization (Code K) at NASA Headquarters also has developed a publication on how to do business with NASA.
How can I become an astronaut?
Any adult man or woman in excellent physical condi tion who meets the basic qualifications can be selected to enter astronaut training.
For mission specialists and pilot astronauts, the minimum requirements include a bachelor's degree in engineering, science or mathematics from an ac credited institution. Three years of related experience must follow the degree, and an advanced degree is desirable. Pilot astronauts must have at least 1,000 hours of experience in jet aircraft, and they need bet ter vision than mission specialists.
Astronaut recruiting occurs periodically. For more information, write to the Astronaut Selection Office, NASA Johnson Space Center Houston, TX 77058.
Can I become a member of a NASA club or have my name put on a mailing list?
NASA does not maintain public mailing lists nor does it sponsor a space club.However. there are numerous private groups and professional organizations throughout the country that support the space program. There also are many weekly and monthly magazines and newsletters that report on space and aeronautics activities.
Your local school or community library should be a good source of information on these groups and publications, as well as one of the best places to find books about NASA, its history and its future plans.
The solar system
V
Our solar system is an oasis of light, heat, and life in the
cold reaches of the Milky Way Galaxy It consists of a central
star - the Sun - and its family of nine planets, more than 60
moons, millions of rocky asteroids, and billions of icy comets.
Recent discoveries prove that our solar system is nor alone.
Astronomers have dis covered planets orbiting sev eral other
stars. But current telescopes cannot reveal Earth-like planets -
the planers that are most likely to harbor life. As far as we
know, then, Earth is the Oak)nr's only inhabited planet.
The solar system was born about 4.6 billion years ago, when
something disturbed a vast cloud of cold gas and dust - the raw
mate rial of stars and planers. The dis turbance might have been
a colli sion with another cloud, or a shock wave from an
exploding star.
Whatever the cause, the cloud fragmented into smaller, denser
pockets of matter, which collapsed inward under the pull of their
own gravity. In perhaps 100,000 years, one of the pockets, called
a nebula, condensed into a volume about the size of the
present-day solar system. In the dense center of the nebula,
individual protons - the barenu dci of hydrogen atoms - were
packed so tightly that they ramrned into each other, joining
together to form the nuclei of heavier helium, and releasing ener
gy in the process. In a cosmic instant, our Sun was born.
The newborn Sun was still surrounded by its nebula, which
Our solar system formed from a giant cloud of gas
and dust like this one - t& Orion Nebula.
was spread into a thin disk because the nebula was spinning.
Seen from afar, the young solar system would have looked
something like a thick stack of hot Y,ancakes with a scoop of
cold butter sunk into the middle.
Atorns and molecules within the "pancake" combined to
form larger particles. The Sun deter mined what kinds of
particles couM exist. Close to the Sun it was so hot that ices
melted and light weight elements, like hydrogen and helium, were
"sandblasted'1 away by the intense radiation.
This zone was dominated by rock and metal, which clumped together
into ever-larger bodies, eventually forming the rocky inner
planets:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
In the solar system's outer region, though, it was chilly enough
for ices to remain intact. They, 100, merged into ever-larger
bodies, called planetesimals, which in turn came together to form
the hearts of the giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune. Radiation pres sure far from the Sun was less intense,
too, so plenty of hydro gen and helium remained. As the giant
planets grew, they swept up much of these left overs, so they
grew larger still. Jupiter and Saturn contain the largest
percentages of hydrogen and helium, while Uranus and Neptune,
which formed in the coldest region of the solar sys tem, contain
larger shares of ices - frozen water, ammonia, methane, and
carbon monox ide.
Most of the moons probably formed at the same time as their
parent planets. Near the Sun, heat, radiation, and gravity
prevented the formation of moons. Farther out, moons formed from
rock and ice.
Earth's moon was born a bit later, though, when a body as big as
Mars slammed mb our planet. The collision blasted a geyser of
molten rock into orbit around Earth; the material quickly cooled
and coalesced to form the Moon.
After all the planets are moons were accounted for, there were
still some leftovers.
Icy planetesimals were hurled. far from the Sun by encounters
with the giant outer planets. These icy leftovers inhabit a vast
shell, called the Oort Cloud, that surrounds the present-day
solar system. A passing star occasionally jostles one of the icy
bodies out of its lazy orbit, and it falls toward the Sun, where
it becomes a comet, with a long, glowing tail.
Ago, the most remote planet, a- be little more than a giant
c-Its composition is similar to Ihacicomets, and iLs orbit is
-it different from that of the other planets.
Some rocky leftovers remained near the Sun. Many of them inhabit
the asteroid belt, a zone between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
The asteroids never formed a planet because the gravity of nearby
Jupiter kept pulling them a~ Today, millions of asteroids
- some of them as big as moons
- probably inhabit the asteroid belt, with many more scattered
throughout the solar system.
The solar system has probably ~hanged little since the planets
~nd moors formed. The Sun
churns steadily along, converting hydrogen to helium in its core.
The planets have evolved some what as they radiated away the hear
left over from their birth, or as ring systems have come and
gone, but there have been no alterations in the solar system's
basic layouL
The most significant change since the solar system's birth is the
development of life. Earth is the only planet known to support
life. Our planet is at just the right dis tance from the Sun for
life; the temperature is warm enough for liquid water, and we
have a. thick,
oxygen-rich atmosphere. Fossils ~mdicate that the first
one-celled
organisms appeared on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago, and
per- haps as early as 3.9 billion years ago. But larget more
complex life forms did not appear until about 540 million years
ago.
Life might have evolved else where in the solar system.
Scientists have found evidence that rnkroscopic life might have
inhabited Mars about 3.6 billion years ago, although the finding
has not been confirmed. Liquid water once flowed across the
martian surface1 and might still exist in underground
reservoirs there, raising a slight hope that Mars might yet be
inhabited by simple organisms.
Water might also exist on one
Earth is a warm, wet planet with an orygen-rich
atmosphere - the solar system's most pleasant home for
life.
of Jupiter's moons, Europa, beneath a mantle of ice. Complex
organic molecules abound on Saturn's largest moon, ~tan, although
temperatures there are so cold that water would be frozen solid.
And organic molecules exist in icy comets, leadfng some to sug
gest that comets brought the "seeds" for life to Barth
- and perhaps to other planets and moons, too.
Eventuall~ our solar system - and whatever life still inhabits it
will undergo a traumatic change.
About five or six billion years from now, the Sun will deplete
the hydrogen in its core and begin a relatively quick march
toward its ulti mate fate as a white dwarf:
a stellar corpse no bigger than Earth no longer able to produce
nuclear ener~
Along the way, the Sun's core will first contract and grow hot
enough to convert helium into heavier ele ments, while its outer
layers expand and cool. The Sun will grow to many times its
current size, swallowing Mercury, Venus, and perhaps Earth in the
process.
In other words, it will become a red giant - an old, bloated star
that is rapidly nearing the end of its life.
As the red-giant Sun expands, Its gravitational grip on its outer
layers will loosen. Pushed by the star's own radiation, gas will
stream into space at speeds of sev eral miles per second, forming
a hot, colorful "bubble," called a planetary nebula,
around the dying stan Energy from the Sun's core will illuminate
the bubble like a celestial light bulb, until the gas disperses
and the bubble fades from
view.
As the gas moves outward into space, it will sow the seeds of new
stars and planets throughout our celestial neighborhood. Most of
the carbon in the universe, for example, probably formed in the
hearts of red-giant stars, then was hurled into space as those
stars died. When new generations of stars form, they contain more
car bon (and nitrogen, oxygen, and other heavy elements) than
their stellar ancestors.
So when our Sun dies, it will not only put on a beautihil displa~
it will scatter the raw material for new stars, new planets - and
per haps new life - throughout our comer of the Milky Way.
The~Sun wilt end its tife with a colorful planetary
nebula - a glowing shell of gas that will recycle the raw
materials for new stars and planets into the Milky
Way
International Space Station
Background
Overview
1!' 1984, after a review of many studies, President Reagan comrnitted the United States to developing a permanently occupied space station. He also stressed international participation, and NASA invited other countries to work with the United States to develop a space station concept. Japan, Canada and nine of the 13 nations of the Europ can Space Agency agreed to work together on a space station program in September 1988.
In 1993, President Clinton directed NASA to redesign the station to bring its research capabflities on line sooner, involve the Russians, reduce costs significantly, simplify on-orbit construction, and streannline the organization of the progr~ The re-conceived station was named simply International Space Station.
And, compared to the design of its predecessor, International
Space Station will have the ability to do more science, carry a
larger crew, generate more electrical power for research, be
maintained in space with less effort, and handle contingencies
more efficiently.
Today, 16 countries are members of the Intemanonal Space
Station Tearn: Russia, Japan, Canada, Italy, Belgium, the
Netherlands, Denniark, Norway, France, Spain, Germany, Sweden,
Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Brazil, and the United States.
In the early phases of the program, the International Space Station will support a crew of three. When fully assembled in 2004, it will house a crew of six or seven -- working in 46.000 cubic feet of pressured volume (equal to the volume of two 747 jet liners) spread across seven laboratories, two habitation modules, and two logistics modules.
Objectives
Lifting the station's components into space will require more
than 40 launches using both United States Space Shuttle fleet and
Russian Soyuz and Proton vehicles. In all, more than 460 tons of
structures, modules, equipment, and supplies will be placed into
orbit.
Worldwide, more than 900 researchers are working on experiments
to be carried out on-board in the areas of biotechnology,
combustion science, fluid physics, materials science, life
sciences, engineering and technology, and Earth sciences.
There are four over-riding objectives of the International
Space Station:
To create a venue for world class, space-based scientific
experimentation and research.
To create an infrastructure for the development of space-based
commerce and enterprise.
To create senses of wonder, excitement, and exploration among the
people of the Earth leading to demand for space-related education
at all levels, in all countries.
To create a forum for international cooperation, thereby
fostering world peace.
International Space Station Description
Viewed from space - and at its simplest - International Space
Station has tiiree major components:
A bridge-like truss that foirns the backbone to which various
parts of the station are attached
A complex array of panels (in total, approaching the size of a
football field) that generate the station's electric power or
regulate the station's temperature
A series of connected cylindrical structures that serve as the
station's habitat, laboratory, and working areas.
The Tape Measure
Width 361 feet (110 meters)
Length 290 feet (88 meters)
Volume 46,000 cubic feet
Weight 443 tons (886,000 pounds)
inclination 51.6 degrees to the Equator
Atmosphere 14.7 PSI (same as Eanh)
lafe Span Ten year design life
All are designed and built as discrete components, able to be carried into orbit by U.S. Space Shuffles and Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets. There will be a total of 34 Shuttle launches, five Soyuz launches and four Proton launches.
The space station will travel at a speed of about 17,500 miles per hour, completing one orbit every 90 minutes. The station will operate at an altitude of 217 to 285 statute miles (350 to 460 kilometers) - about the distance from New York to Washington DC.
The First Element Launches
International Space Station's first element consists of the Functional Cargo Block from Russia and Node 1 (with Pressurized Mating Adapters) from the United States. The Functional Cargo Block was lifted into space atop an unmanned Proton vehicle from the B aikonur Cosmorrome on November 20, 1998. Node 1 followed on the U.S. Shuttle Endeavour on December 4,1998. During the Endeavour's seven-day mission, a combined Astronaut-Cosmonaut crew of Commander Robert D. Cabana, Pilot Rick Sturckow; Mission Specialists Nancy Currie, Jerry Ross, Jim Newman; and Cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev joined the two major elements.
Functional Cargo Block: Named Zarya twussian for "sunrise") the FOB is a self-supporting, active vehicle. It provides propulsive control capability and power through the early assembly stages - plus fuel storage capability. The FOB provides rendezvous and docking capability for the Service Module Zarya was built for NASA by Boeing and Khrunichev in Moscow.
Node 1: Node 1, named Unity, was built by Boeing in Huntsville, Ala. Unity ts six ports will provide connecting points for critical station components: the Zi truss, U.S. Laboratory, airlock, cupola, U.S. Habitation Module, and the early Mini Pressurized Logistics Module.
First, the crew used Endeavour's remote manipulator arm to lift Unity out of the cargo bay and attach it to Endeavour's docking port - which also resided in the cargo bay, forward of Unity. Endeavour then executed a rendezvous with Zwya, so that Zarya was "above" the cargo bay. Again using the remote nwtipulator an", the crew pulled Zar"a down and make the connection to Unity's Pressured Mating Adapter-i.
Astronauts Jerry Ross and Jim Newman conducted three demanding spacewalks (called Extra Velucular Activities or FV As) to connect power and data transmission cables between Unity, Unity's two PMAs, and Za'ya. One multi-hour spacewalk was carried out every other day with the first occurring the day after the Zwya rendezvous and mating.
International Space Station Components
Component to he launched later in the program include:
Service Module: The primary Russian contribution and the station's early living quarters. It provides life support system functions to all early elements. Irrimay docking is for Russian Progress re-supply vehicles. The module provides propulsive attitude control and re-boost.
U.S. Truss: Includes a mobile transporter which can be positioned along the truss for robotic assembly and maintenance operations and is the site of the Canadian Mobile Servicing System
Seven Scientific Laboratories: A United States Laboratory; the European Space Agency's Columbus Orbital Facility; a Japanese Experiment Module, with centrifuge facility; and three Russian Research Modules. U.S., European and Japanese laboratories together provide 33 payload racks; additional science rack space is available in the three Russian laboratory modules. The Japanese Experiment Module has an exposed platform for experiments that require direct contact with the space environment
Canadian Mobile Servicing System: Includes a 55-foot robot arm with 125-ton payload capability and mobile transporter which can be positioned along the truss for robotic assembly and maintenance operations.
U.S. Node 2: Contains racks for equipment used to convert electrical power for use by the international partners.
Italian Mini Pressurized Laboratory Module: Will be used to carry all the pressurized cargo and payloads launched on the Space Shuttle.
Crew Transfer Vebides: Include a modified Russian Soyuz capsule and a Crew Retun Vehicle, able to accommodate a crew of three - two when transferring an ill or injured crew member, plus attendant medical equipment.
Electric Power System: Consists of power generation, energy storage, power management, and distribution equipment. Electricity is generated in a system of solar arrays which total 27,000 square feet (about 1 acre) in size. The largest of the solar array panels is 13 feet wide by 50 feet long.
Trusses: The backbone of International Space Station, formed by five pre integrated truss segments. Each segment provides the foundation for subsystem hardware installation, utility distribution power generation, heat rejection, and external payload accommodations.
Future Launches
The International Space Station program has three distinct
phases, each building on the prior one and representing new
milestones and capabilities.
ˇ Phase 1, now complete, involved visits by U.S. astronauts
aboard the Russian Mir Space Station and dockings between the
Space Shuttle and the Mir. Phase I built joint space experience
and initiated scientific research between the United States and
Russian partners using existing facilities and resources.
Phase 2 of the International Space Station program --
construction in orbit -- began with the first elements launched
in November and December of 1998. Next, the first wholly Russian
contribution, a component called the Service Module, will provide
the initial living quarters and life support systems, wilt be
launched from Russia.
After two more Space Shuffle assembly flights, a three-person
crew will be launched aboard a Russian Soyuz capsule to spend
more than four months on the station. From that point on, the
station will be permanently inhabited.
Phase 3 of assembly will see the International Space Station
progress gradually to completion with a crew of up to seven
members; laboratory modules supplied by the United States, Japan,
Europe, and Russia; and a robotic arm supplied by Canada.
Research On International Space Station
The International Space Station will be a worid-class,
state-of4he-art, mnltipurpose laboratory. It will provide an
unprecedented gateway to discovery - for scientific,
technological or commercial purposes. The seven men and women who
work and live on this perraanent orbiting science and technology
research base will devote themselves to carrying out a diverse
set of jobs, from life science and microgravity science studies
to Earth science and space science research.
Space investigators from industry, academia and government
will take advantage of a rich diversity of facilities carried
aboard the orbiting conplex. In addition, "Remote
Telescience" meaning an interactive set of data and video
links - offers the ability for scientists on the ground to have a
direct connection with their experiments in microgravity.
Year-round research is to be undertaken aboard International
Space Station. To do so, facilities are being designed to yield a
steady stream of findings from hundreds of sophisticated science
and technology experiments.
The facilities constitute a rack, or a series of racks, that
hold scientific experiments of common discipline. Major
facilities that are to be carried onboard the International Space
Station include:
Space Station Furnace Facility
Cm vita tional Biology Facility
Human Research Facility
Biotechnology Facility
Fluids & Combustion Facility
Centrifuge Facility
Optical Window Rack Facility
A Worldwide Effort By Boeing
With a "space footprint" the size of almost two football fields, the International Space Station is the largest international space venture ever undertaken. The Boeing Company is prime contractor and directs a national industry team comprising most major U.S. aerospace companies and hundreds of smaller subcontractors.
Likewise. Boeing integrates the work of participants from the 16 countries that form the 155 Team. The overall size and complexity of International Space Station - coupled to its phased on-orbit construction - means that more than 40 launches by United States, Russian and European launch vehicles are required for its completion in the year 2004.
ˇ Houston, Texas: Boeing directs its International Space Station role from its facility in Houston, Texas. The Boeing Houston team is involved in the design, development. integration, testing and delivery of the U.S.-built elements. These include the U.S. Laboratory, Habitation module, interconnecting nodes and structures, power system, data management system, environmental control and life support system, and other critical hardware and software.
ˇ Huntsville, Alabama: Huntsville's Marshall Space Flight Center is the site of Boeing work on the space station's pressurized U.S. modules -- including the U.S. Laboratory and U.S. Habitation Module. The Boeing team in Huntsville also built Node 1. The team is helping to design the station's environmental control and life support system. Other space station work Boeing is executing in Huntsville includes building payload racks, a cupola viewing window, cargo carrier, internal thermal controls, internal audio-video system, a secondary power subsystem and other subsystems.
ˇ Canoga Park, California: Boeing Rocketdyne Propulsion & Power is responsible for the end-to- end Electrical Power System architecture for International Space Station. The system provides all user and housekeeping electrical power and is capable of expansion as the station is assembled and grows. Power for the space station will be provided by flexible, deployable solar array wings. Each 39-foot by 112-foot wing consists of two blanket assemblies covered with solar cells. Each pair of blankets is to be deployed and supported by an extendable mast.
ˇ Huntington Beach, California: The Boeing Huntington Beach team is developing and building the station's pre-integrated truss structure, pressurized mating adapters, and mobile transporter, as well as performing cupola outfitting. Huntington Beach also leads several teams in development of various systems such as communications and tracking; guidance, navigation and control; command and data handling; and thermal control.
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